In communities where neither springs nor stand taps are unavailable, the population drink from open streams that also serve for laundry and bathing. 2). Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. Cameroon is rich in national parks and wildlife reserves, including the Waza National Park in the north (which contains both forest and savanna animals), the Dja Faunal Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage site), and the Campo Ma'an National Park in the southwest (which has elephants, hippos, leopards, and plenty of primates). This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. The coast is hot and very wet, with only a short dry season. The northern lowland region is relatively arid, with low rainfall and high temperatures. Please see the Terms of use for more information. 2013. The following references provide more information on the geology and hydrogeology of Cameroon. Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. They pronk: bounce with all four feet alternatively on and off the ground, for what seems to be pure joy. Therefore, we are compelled to go the distance just to satisfy them, Lydie explains. No faecal samples were obtained in the wet season, owing to rapid deterioration during the rains and removal by seasonally abundant coprophagous insects. Namib Desert Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. 2009). African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. Nasilele mubita says her family was always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source. Of the 322 billion cubic meters of total available water resources, groundwater constitutes 21% (57 billion cubic meters) of this resource (Ako Ako et al. Indeed, it has become apparent in Southern Africa that male lions hunt successfully and quite often in the absence of female lions [25], [26]. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, The Kenya Water Resources Management Authority shall have the following powers and functions: For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). Zeke Davidson, UN Human Development Index (HDI) [highest = 1] (2014)*. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Tsavo. Water dependence varies between herbivore species [11], [13] but most species need to access drinking water on a few-day basis at the peak of the dry season, and herbivore aggregations frequently form around permanent water sources during dry seasons, as non-permanent sources further afield dry up [14], [15]. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. This is reflected by the declines in certain rare herbivores when artificial water points allowed more common herbivores and resident predators access to areas previously too dry to support them [48], [50]. It has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with respect. Where is the Republic of Cameroon located in the world? In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR). This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). Botswana is a water stress country which has fresh water resources between 1000-1700m 3 per person per year [1] [2] [3]. Karoo Cameroon What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit? Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. Below this there can be a deeper fractured aquifer, which usually has low permeability. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! The local presence of evaporites in the Mamf basin leads to groundwaters of sodium-chloride composition (Mafany and Fantong 2006). In spite of the presence of a stand tap at the centre of the village, many villagers still rely on the water source. We owe thanks to Wilderness Safaris, The Hide Safaris, Touch the Wild Safaris, Zimbabwe Sun international and the Gwaai ICA for permission to work on their concessions. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. These are dominantly basalts, with occasional intermediate to acidic phonolites, trachytes and rhyolites, and some loose pyroclastic and tuffaceous ash on the flanks of the volcanic centres. The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. Cameroon: Sahara Desert A Threat to Livelihood and Bio-Diversity. As a country in Africa, Cameroon is situated just between the Central and Western Regions of Africa. e55182. Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year. A number of agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries (e.g Alker 2008). Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. and common mice (Mus spp.). In the north, the Bnou River flows north and west into the Niger. What are the characteristics of rivers in Cameroon? I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . Unfortunately, it is also a country where wildlife is subject to a wide and intense array of human pressures. The coastal plain and southern plateau are dominated by equatorial rainforest. cameroon water resources for lions. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Livestock agriculture and fishing are also important, and the commercial bushmeat trade is large enough to threaten wildlife. Felix Murindagomo, The Lake Chad basin aquifer contains three main aquifer units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). Further water and related statistics can be accessed at the Aquastat Main Database. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (33%), followed by giraffe (20%), medium Bovidae (18%), and kudu (14%) and collectively accounting for 85% of the prey biomass consumed (Table 3). feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. In northeast Cameroon, the Lake Chad basin aquifer is shared with neighbouring countries. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. Sightings of lion in the hluhluwe umfolozi vary according to various factors. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. Australian Wildlife Conservancy, Australia, Received: October 1, 2012; Accepted: December 19, 2012; Published: February 6, 2013. Timber logging provides significant government income, but is relatively poorly regulated. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). : 19 192 m3/year, Per Capita in 2005 As in data were modified to ensure consistency with water resources data. Contrary to our predictions, areas close to waterholes were highly selected for kills regardless of seasonal conditions. Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. With 208 km 3 of renewable water resources, only 1 km 3 is used for drinking water. Water Practice and Technology. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. Largely acidic groundwater, with pH from 4 to 7. An improved water source over this period for resources leads to infanticide- the practice of killing others! From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Etosha In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo. The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. Overall, juveniles represented one third of the zebra carcasses found. The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. April 20, 2022 Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ZD MV. Laboratoire de Biomtrie et Biologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5558, Universit Claude Bernard - Lyon 1, Bt Gregor Mendel, Villeurbanne, France, Affiliation: Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. Proportional prey selection did not differ significantly between seasons neither for males (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=10.17, df=7, p=0.18; Friedman 2early dry-wet=9.57, df=7, p=0.21; Friedman 2late dry-wet=11.70, df=7, p=0.11), nor for females even though results approached significance level (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=12.95, df=7, p=0.07; Friedman 2early dry-wet=11.67, df=7, p=0.11; Friedman 2late dry-wet=12.45, df=7, p=0.08). Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. In total, agriculture contributes around 40% of GDP. Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Juveniles also represented an important proportion of the giraffe killed by lions (Fig. Mambele, situated some 800 km from the nations capital Yaounde, is one of 21 communities around Lobeke with over 23000 inhabitants. Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. Faecal data, mainly representative of female diet, suggest that kudu (revealed as the second main prey for females from kill data) may be an equally important prey species for female lions and that this species may be under-represented by kill data. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021 Subscribe to the texas a&m today newsletter for the latest news and stories every week. Most groundwater in Cameroon is thought to be of good natural inorganic quality. Overall, Jacobss indices showed avoidance of small antelopes and megaherbivores (elephant and giraffe) except for female lions which showed a slight preference for elephants in the wet season and consumed giraffe in proportion to their availability in the early and dry seasons (Fig. The upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. Juveniles were taken almost exclusively (Fig. Water Supply and Sanitation in Cameroon. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. Seasonal Water Sources; Seasonal Water Sources. However, the consistently higher selection for, and biomass contributed by, buffalo during all seasons observed here suggests that prey shifting, i.e. Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. Like the continent includes the islands of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and thus! We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey water downstream during this.! doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon. For further information about transboundary aquifers, please see the Transboundary aquifers resources page. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. Volcanic centres form moderately to highly productive fractured/weathered aquifers. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Marion Valeix, Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. The river has been exploited by local communities for transport, fish, and water for irrigation. There is a coastal plain that extends 15-150 km inland; the south Cameroon plateau that rises from the coastal plain to more than 600 m; the Cameroon chain of mountains, hills and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast (Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 m) almost to Lake Chad on the northern border; the Adamawa Plateau in the centre of the country, with an average elevation of 1,100 m; and a northern lowland region, which extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an elevation of around 300 m. The climate varies across the country, controlled by topography. Funding: The work was supported by the Darwin Initiative for Biodiversity, Disney Wildlife Conservation Foundation, SAVE Foundation, Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation and Instalite Contracting Bulawayo. Composed mainly of Cretaceous marine sandstones and limestones, which are 1000 to 2000 m thick. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. Water is artificially supplied to some waterholes during the dry season (40 in the study area). Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Cameroon: Water source sustains community, 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). Whiskers indicate the range between 10% and 90% percentiles. Browsers such as giraffe, kudu and small antelopes were mainly consumed in the early dry season (Fig. Tsavo National Park - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. Please cite this page as: Upton, Dochartaigh & Bellwood-Howard, 2018. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). Windhoek Cameroon has two major rivers, the Sanaga, the longest at about 525 km (325 miles) long and the Wouri, the largest. Leave a comment Africa Groundwater Atlas: Hydrogeology of Cameroon. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. British Geological Survey. For medium Bovidae in the early dry season, male lions killed the three prey recorded far from a waterhole (Fig. Marion Valeix, Affiliation: Cameroon's national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. We achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples. High rainfall means high potential recharge potential in much of Cameroon, except in the arid north, and the limitations on groundwater potential are therefore largely related to low aquifer storage and permeability in the basement rocks across much of the country. Groundwater quality is generally good. 1 being water and season. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected "zone" around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. For each season, we also calculated the availability of each distance-to-water category in the study area. This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country, Cameroon. We then converted the frequency of occurrence into biomass estimates using the average adult male and female mass (from [1], [34]). Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. Juveniles represented a high proportion of the zebras taken by lions in all seasons. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Groundwater in the deeper confined Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is dominated by Na-HCO. spesification Citation: Davidson Z, Valeix M, Van Kesteren F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, et al. Volcanic massifs from the Adamaoua to the Atlantic. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Y Xu and B Usher, Taylor and Francis/Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 47-55. In our case this is particularly true for the class small antelopes. 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